癌症免疫疗法的显着重生

变化是在空中
在持续对抗癌症的战斗中有新希望的原因。从癌症会议的仅限室挑衅数据演示文稿到地标出版物和新药批准,标志是多数和清晰的。利用免疫系统作为抗癌治疗 - 尚未充分发挥其承诺的战略 - 现在是肿瘤药物发展最令人兴奋的地区。

Covance癌细胞博客

免疫监测:一个看不见的恶性哨兵
癌症免疫疗法故事中的第一章是一个故事,提供了对人类希望与医疗进步有时反复性质之间相互作用的背景技术的看法。但那个故事远远超出了未来800左右的范围左右。但是,我们可以利用后代考虑一些重点的经验教训。

在20世纪50年代中期,免疫学先锋Macfarlane Burnett和Lewis Thomas介绍了我们的免疫系统对于在恶性道路上的细胞存在不断调生的假设。通过该过程,检测转化的细胞,警告免疫系统,然后发射攻击以消除它们,从而使癌症保持临床上的临床上。该提案,称为癌症免疫监测,是一个关键的概念进步,以及作为治疗策略的免疫治疗中的组织原则。

当免疫监测失败时
Immune surveillance fails when some tumors escape immune detection and elimination, and cancer becomes clinically apparent. The details are complex, but at a conceptual level, immune surveillance failure is the result of some combination of a tumor’s ability to evade detection and failure of the immune system to mount an effective response.

As support for the immune surveillance hypothesis accumulated, possible drug development strategies became apparent. Soon there was great hope for realizing the untapped potential in the strategy of reawakening the immune system by giving it a boost. Thus began a three-decade effort to activate the immune system in the war against cancer.

The immunotherapy assault on cancer was no halfhearted effort. A wide range of therapeutic interventions were tested including:

  • Therapeutic cancer vaccines based on cancer-associated antigens
  • Immunostimulatory adjuvants for use with cancer vaccines
  • Antiproliferative cytokines such as interleukin-2 and interferon alpha
  • 靶向肿瘤细胞受体的单克隆抗体
  • 活性免疫细胞的输注

经过三十年的调查,显然治疗进展已经非常有限。细胞因子被证明是非常有毒的,但只有少量的患者效果。癌症疫苗,虽然没有特别有毒,产生的抗肿瘤反应迹象,但也有限的抗肿瘤效果。存在重要的成就,例如各种抗癌单克隆抗体的发展。2010年,Sipuerucel-T,用于晚期前列腺癌的树突状细胞疫苗是FDA批准的第一个癌症疫苗。

免疫检查站:开启新章节
现在可以清楚地理解限制免疫反应的强度和持续时间的关键过程。如果我们对免疫应答的组分进行大幅度的透视,则免疫反应控制的相关性变得清晰。

We now know that an effective immune response requires three critical steps (summarized below in Table 1; also see Figure 1).Cancer Blog Covance

Covance癌症博客文章
Figure 1: The Cancer-Immunity Cycle (from Mellman et al; Immunity 39, July 25, 2013)

主要提前是识别T细胞表面上的多个受体必须从树突细胞上的多个配体接收来自树突状细胞的多个配体的共和率信号,以便进行T细胞活化。导致T细胞活化的重要报价信号是在静息T细胞上与其受体CD28对树枝状细胞的配体B7结合。这种触发T细胞活化,其包括细胞毒性T细胞的增殖和迁移到肿瘤。

That’s all well and good, but CD28 is not the only partner for B7. An inhibitory receptor, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4) is expressed on the surface of a T cell as soon as T cell activation occurs. CTLA4 binds to B7 on a dendritic cell with greater affinity than CD28 and restricts or puts a halt to the T cell’s participation in an immune response (Figure 2)

癌症癌症
图2A.左侧抗原呈递细胞(APC)上的共刺激配体与右侧T细胞上的受体结合,触发T细胞活化和增殖。在静息T细胞中,CTLA4容纳在囊泡中。(MHC:主要组织相容性抗原; TAA:肿瘤相关抗原)B.在T细胞活化之后,CTLA4在T细胞的表面上表达并结合B7,更换CD28,更换CD28,阻断T细胞增殖。来自:Salama Ak和Hodi;临床癌症研究,2011年,Vol。17,pp。4622-4628

该抑制机制是免疫检查点体系的组成部分,一种正常的生理机制,限制免疫激活并防止自身免疫的发展。免疫检查点对免疫反应的控制有助于解释为什么癌症相关的抗原识别和成功的T细胞活化不足以产生持续和有效的抗肿瘤攻击。CTLA4抑制可能是不接受的可能性,但受约束的T细胞使CTLA4成为药物发育的理性靶标。

Ipilimumab,Trailblazer

用IPILIMIMAB实现抗CTLA4药物开发,一种与CTLA4结合的单克隆抗体,并阻止其与CD28竞争的能力与B7结合。IPILIMIMAB的CTLA4封闭式被证明是通过增加转移性黑素瘤患者中位生存期恢复抗癌免疫应答的有效手段。通过2011年通过FDA批准IPILIMIMAB作为先进黑素瘤的新治疗方法,进一步验证了这种方法。这是癌症免疫疗法的一个初创性时刻。

Covance ipilimumab.
Figure 3: Ipilimumab’s mechanism of action of From: Mellman et al Nature Vol 480; 22 29 December 2011)

在新出现的活动数据之后,免疫检查点抑制抑制到策略的最前沿,以利用免疫系统。此外,IPILIMIMAB的经验显示出独特的肿瘤反应模式和新型毒性剖面。这两个观察结果都会在新的免疫检查点抑制剂的发展中发挥重要作用。

挖掘药物开发目标的免疫检查点
CD28及其配体B7或CTLA 4是较大图像的一部分,其中特定的T细胞受体及其对抗原呈递细胞或肿瘤的相应配体抑制或促进肿瘤特异性T细胞应答(图4)。在这种情况下,免疫反应的强度是促进T细胞活化和增殖的力之间的平衡的结果,以及抑制免疫反应的那些部分的力。原则上,这意味着药物开发努力应专注于通过增强刺激受体的功能或抑制抑制受体的功能来转移平衡。这可以通过使用具有激动剂或拮抗剂效应的单克隆抗体来实现(图5)。

Covance Cancar Cruelty.
Figure 3: Receptor-ligand interactions between T cells and antigen-presenting cells or tumor cells. From: Mellman et al, Nature Vol 480, 22: 29 Dec 2011

Cocance癌症受体
Figure 4: The basis for immune checkpoint modulation through the action of agonist or inhibitory monoclonal antibodies. From: Mellman et al, Nature Vol 480, 22: 29 Dec 2011

另一个重要的受体 - 配体对是编程的死亡-1(PD-1)受体及其配体,编程死亡配体1(PD-L1)。与CTLA4一样,PD-1在活性T细胞上表达并防止T细胞攻击肿瘤;然而,它以不同的方式实现了这一结果。PD-1在淋巴结中T细胞的树枝状细胞活化点和T细胞攻击部位在肿瘤的微环境中。由于IPILIMIMAB的批准,另外两个单克隆抗体,PEMBROLIZUAB和NIVOLUMAB,PD-1的两个抑制剂已被批准用于如下所述的具体适应症(表2)。黑色素瘤中的比较数据表明,释放PD-1 / PD-L1的检查点抑制诱导更大的临床疗效,然后抗CTLA4靶向。

Covance毒品开发博客

There’s No Free Lunch
免疫检查点起到将缰绳放在免疫反应上的重要生理作用,如果未选中,可能会导致有害的炎症作用甚至自身免疫。因此,当IPILIMIMAAB的特征副作用包括当T细胞从CTLA4抑制释放并释放到攻击肿瘤时,它并不令人惊讶于,并且在结果时,各种正常组织。

Ipilimumab is associated with a range of toxicities involving multiple organs. Collectively they are known as immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Among the most common manifestations of irAEs are: dermatitis, hepatitis, colitis, endocrinopathies, and neuropathy. We will revisit the toxicity profile of ipilimumab and other immune checkpoint inhibitors in the next blog post.

向前进
Cancer immunotherapy has undergone a remarkable rebirth, but it remains in its infancy. Many questions remain unanswered and we are still learning to adapt to the lessons that we’ve learned to date. I

Cancer immunotherapy is especially promising, because the immune system has a variety of attributes that make immunotherapy different from any other approach to the treatment of cancer. Many of the common challenges of developing cancer therapies have to be viewed differently. On the other hand, many of the lessons learned from the past decade of developing targeted therapies are relevant to the future development of cancer immunotherapy.

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